One of the most compelling reasons to choose aquaponics is its sustainability. As a closed system, this method uses much less water than traditional farming. A farmer shares tips on how to approach this production method.

Aquaponics presents a transformative solution for sustainable food production in a country where arable land and water are becoming increasingly scarce. By combining fish farming with soilless plant cultivation in a single, closed-loop system, aquaponics maximises resource efficiency while minimising environmental impact.

This farming method requires significantly less water than traditional agriculture, making it especially beneficial for communities grappling with limited access to irrigation. At the forefront of this innovative approach is MJ Nunes, an agriculturalist and the owner-director of Sable Creek Farms in Limpopo.

With a background in agricultural management and a passion for system design, Nunes has built a fully integrated aquaponics facility that prioritises energy efficiency, biological balance, and market-driven crop production. Nunes offers tips from extensive hands-on experience to unpack the core principles and practical strategies for building and operating a successful aquaponics system.

Understand why aquaponics works

One of the most compelling reasons to choose aquaponics is its sustainability. Due to it being a closed system, aquaponics uses significantly less water than traditional farming.

“It means we save about 95% water compared to traditional or other farming techniques,” Nunes says. Additionally, aquaponics is entirely organic. Farmers cannot use synthetic chemicals or pesticides because they would harm the fish in the system.

Key to the success of this configuration is filtration (e.g. radial flow or swirl filters) to remove solids and biological processes (biofilters) to convert ammonia into usable nitrates. This ensures nutrient availability for crops while protecting fish health.

“Each system includes four aquaculture tanks connected to six media beds and six deep water culture (DWC) rafts, all in the same loop. The solids are mechanically and biologically filtered before the water reaches the plants,” he explains.

Another unique benefit of the aquaponic system is its suitability for urban or small-scale farming, especially in water-scarce areas like South Africa.

Recognise the dual income potential

One of the major advantages of aquaponics is that it can produce two sources of income: fish and crops. “Your produce in aquaponics grows about two times faster and quicker than growing in the soil. Your turnaround time for your produce from seed to harvest is much quicker.”

While aquaponics systems can be costly to set up, Nunes notes that the investment is worth it in the long run due to reduced operating costs and high efficiency. Operating costs are much lower compared to conventional farming, especially for those growing organic produce.

“Aquaponics production cost is much lower than farming in soil. Your price for your organic produce doesn’t have to be sky high because it’s got the name organic.”

Stocking and feeding strategies

Sable Creek produces market-size tilapia, targeting 200g to 350g weights within a 7 to 8-month cycle. Tilapia, being hardy and temperature-tolerant, are ideal for South African climates.

“We run two different aquaponic systems – each one 1000 to 3000 litres per tank, depending on the age and size of fish. We have our own nursery system where we grow fry and juveniles to fingerlings, and then we grade them before placing them into our aquaponic systems,” he says.

By staggering fish ages and using a grading system, Nunes explains that this reduces in-tank competition and mortality. It also ensures steady nutrient output, which translates to consistent plant growth.

Choose the right crops

Nunes explains that some crops thrive in aquaponics systems more than others. For optimal results, focus on fast-growing, water-loving crops.

“Herbs do extremely well, lettuces do extremely well, tomatoes do extremely well, peppers do well, chillies do well in the system,” he says. Plant varieties are selected based on nutrient demand, growth rate, and market potential.

The use of media beds supports root crops and beneficial bacteria, while DWC rafts are ideal for lighter leafy greens like lettuce, basil, and rocket.

Monitoring and water quality management

Water chemistry is at the heart of system health in aquaponics. The pH, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and dissolved oxygen (DO) levels must be constantly monitored and balanced for both plant and fish requirements.

“If any value goes out of range, the entire system is affected,” says Nunes. To prevent disease and maintain productivity, the facility is designed with biosecurity protocols such as foot baths, mesh screening, and limited access to tanks.

Resource efficiency and power usage

In line with sustainability principles, Nunes highlights energy minimisation and system automation. “The whole system is designed to run on less than 2kWh per hour. We use variable speed pumps, gravity-assisted drainage, and off-grid options like solar aeration.”

These interventions make the system resilient to load shedding and reduce operational costs, a critical aspect for small-scale commercial viability.

Business and market integration

Nunes emphasises the importance of full traceability, compliance, and certification where required. He encourages aspiring aquaponics producers to plan for market access early.

“We harvest, wash, chill and deliver on the same day. This shortens the time to shelf, so retailers get fresher produce and it lasts longer for consumers.” He also stresses the importance of working within strict quality control frameworks.

“Our lettuce goes from field to chiller in under an hour, and we keep it at 2–5°C throughout the cold chain.” An aquaponic system is not only a production model but a system with room for research and further innovation, aimed at showcasing replicable technologies for urban and peri-urban farmers.

“The goal is to build a model that can be scaled up or down, with minimal environmental impact and maximum food output per square metre,” he says.

Biosecurity

Disease control is critical to maintaining healthy fish and crops. “Sanitation is a big thing. If I go to a fish farm today and go into my greenhouse again, I could be bringing something in through my shoes,” Nunes cautions.

He ensures every greenhouse is equipped with foot baths and sanitation areas, minimising risk. Viruses like tobacco mosaic can spread through human contact, which is why visitors who smoke must take precautions.

Embracing technology

Nunes recommends incorporating simple yet effective technologies to run efficient systems. To manage South Africa’s unreliable power supply, his systems include global system for mobile communication (GSM) units.

“If the power does go off after it’s changed over to our solar unit, it will then alert us through a proper alarm to tell us that the power is off.” Nunes is also developing a digital water parameter monitoring system, replacing manual test kits.

The post Aquaponics basics: Get your system thriving appeared first on IPNN.

In recent years, precision agriculture has gained prominence within the agricultural industry. This approach integrates artificial intelligence (AI) and data-driven insights to revolutionize traditional farming methods. Precision agriculture is increasingly recognized for its role in modernizing farming practices, delivering numerous advantages, and advancing sustainability and efficiency.

Precision agriculture is fundamentally a comprehensive farming strategy that leverages advanced technologies to optimize various facets of crop production. Precision Agriculture Transform Farming with AI and data analysis to enhance crop productivity conserve resources and address environmental concerns.

The primary objective is to provide farmers with real-time information regarding soil conditions, climate patterns, crop health and other factors, for decision-making. Essentially precision farming empowers farmers to make accurate choices by leveraging data related to land, weather, crops and various other variables.

This empowers them to tailor their actions, encompassing irrigation, fertilization, and pest management, to meet the specific requirements of their crops. The result is improved productivity, reduced costs, and enhanced sustainability.

Continue reading to explore how precision agriculture harmonizes with nature to enable farmers to make more informed decisions and farm with unprecedented efficiency.

How Is Precision Agriculture Transforming Farming with AI and Data-Driven insights?

In precision agriculture, precision agriculture technologies such as AI, GPS, and data-driven insights are integrated for efficient farming. This approach improves the crop production through real-time information on soil conditions, climate, and crop health, empowering farmers to make accurate decisions. The result is enhanced productivity, reduced costs, and improved sustainability for the future of agriculture.

Application of Precision Agriculture

Precision agriculture optimizes farming practices using advanced technology. Its applications include VRT, GPS/GNSS tracking, remote sensing, and data analytics to enhance resource management, increase yields, and promote sustainable agricultural practices.

1. Variable Rate Technology
   VRT allows farmers to adjust input application rates like fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds across fields based on soil variability, optimizing yields while reducing costs and environmental impact.
2. Remote Sensing Technologies
   RST such as satellites and drones, provide key data on crop health, moisture levels, and nutrient status. It helps farmers in informed decision-making for effective crop management.
3. Precision Irrigation systems
   PIS like drip irrigation, equipped with VRT, deliver water more efficiently based on factors like soil moisture and weather forecasts. This enhances water savings and crop yields.
4. Crop Monitoring and Management Software
   It integrates data from sensors, drones, and satellite imagery to monitor crop growth. Besides, it detects pests and diseases, and optimize management practices for timely interventions.
5. Data Analytics and Decision Support Systems
   It analyzes diverse data sources to make data-driven decisions on crop management, resource allocation, and risk mitigation, enhancing profitability and sustainability.

How Data Analytics Is Transforming Agriculture?

Data analytics is kind of like the superhero of modern farming, swooping in to change the game for traditional farming methods. It’s like giving farming a supercharged upgrade, and we call it “Precision agriculture” or “Smart farming.” This whole deal involves bringing in fancy tech and loads of information to lend a hand to farmers, researchers, and farm businesses. They’re all about making smarter choices and growing stuff in the slickest way possible.

Now picture this: instead of taking wild guesses, farmers can tap into data to know precisely what their crops and animals need. They’ve got these cool gadgets and computers that collect info from every corner of the farm. It’s like having a team of experts helping them figure out the best way to use stuff like water, fertilizer, and pesticides. In a nutshell, they’re leveling up their farming game.

Here’s how data analytics is transforming agriculture:

1. Data Collection and Insights: Utilizing sensors, satellites, and IoT devices, farmers gather real-time data on soil conditions, weather, and crop health, enabling informed decisions for better outcomes.
2. Predictive Analysis: Historical and current data are analyzed to predict crop yield, disease outbreaks, and market trends, aiding farmers in efficient planning and risk reduction.
3. Optimized Crop Management: Data analytics tailors irrigation, fertilization, and resource allocation based on soil health, optimizing yield while minimizing resource wastage.
4. Disease and Pest Control: Early detection via data analysis helps prevent disease spread. AI tools identify crop damage, guiding timely interventions for pest management.
5. Prescriptive Farming Solutions: Data-driven recommendations guide farmers on crop choices, resource application, and timing, enhancing overall operational efficiency and output.

How Can Data-Driven and Digital Agriculture Transform Agriculture and Food Systems?

Given the increasing need, for food and the urgency to embrace methods it is crucial to incorporate data-driven and digitalized techniques in agriculture. This shift is vital, in guaranteeing food security minimizing harm and enhancing agricultural efficiency. Let’s take a closer look at each of these aspects:

Global Food Demand and Sustainable Agriculture

The population of the world is steadily increasing, with projections suggesting that by 2050, it could reach approximately 9 to 10 billion by statista. This demographic growth places immense pressure on agriculture to produce more food.

At the time traditional farming methods faced obstacles due, to climate change depletion of resources and degradation of land. We are increasingly required to increase food production while also minimizing harm to the environment and ensuring sustainability, in the run.

Addressing Challenges through Data-Driven and Digital Agriculture

Data-driven and digital agriculture are like the tech-savvy wizards of the farming world. They use technology, data analysis, and the magic of connectivity to supercharge everything about farming and food production. Imagine bringing in high-tech stuff like precision agriculture, fancy sensors, Internet of Things (IoT) gadgets, and even artificial intelligence (AI) to make farming smarter and better. It’s like giving farming a turbo boost with all the latest tech tricks! The benefits include:

1. Precision Farming: Farmers can gather and analyse data about their fields’ specific conditions, including soil moisture, nutrient levels, and crop health. This information enables precise application of fertilizers, pesticides, and water, reducing waste and increasing yield.
2. Predictive Analytics: By analysing historical and real-time data, predictive models can forecast weather patterns, pest outbreaks, and disease occurrences. This enables farmers to take proactive measures to mitigate potential threats and optimize production.
3. Supply Chain Efficiency: Digital tools help streamline the supply chain by tracking products from farm to fork. This transparency enhances food safety, minimizes waste, and ensures better market access for farmers.
4. Decision Support Systems: Data-driven insights empower farmers to make informed decisions about crop rotation, planting times, and resource allocation, leading to improved productivity and resource management.

Fascinating Figures

• Did you know? A McKinsey study suggests that these fancy digital farming gizmos might give global agriculture a whopping $500 billion to $1.5 trillion boost each year by 2030.
• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) spills the beans: precision farming could cut down production costs by about 10-20% and pump up yields by 10-15%.
• Here’s a gem from The World Bank: those cool digital farming tools can be a real game-changer for the little guys, the small-scale farmers. They’ll get easier access to info, markets, and even money stuff.

How Precision Agriculture Technologies, such as GPS, IoT, and Sensors, Are Revolutionizing Farming Practices

Precision Agriculture Technologies like GPS, IoT, and sensors are reshaping farming by employing data-driven methods that enhance productivity and sustainability.

These technologies collaborate to offer real-time monitoring and predictive analysis, enabling informed decisions. GPS accurately locates equipment and crop attributes, forming the foundation for data collection.

IoT connects devices through the internet, collecting diverse data like soil moisture, temperature, and crop health. Sensors capture environmental data, including weather and pH levels. The integration of these technologies unfolds as follows:

1. Data Collection: IoT sensors gather field data, transmitting it to a central database.
2. Geospatial Context: GPS assigns geographical coordinates to collected data, aiding spatial analysis.
3. Data Integration: Collected data from sensors and GPS merge in a central database, creating a holistic view.
4. Real-Time Monitoring: Farmers monitor factors like soil moisture and crop health in real time, enabling swift decisions on irrigation and pest control.
5. Decision Support Systems: User-friendly dashboards provide actionable insights, guiding planting, harvesting, and resource allocation.

AI in Agriculture

AI in agriculture uses AI technologies to improve farming practices. It has applications such as automation, predictive analytics, and disease detection. AI-powered robots can perform tasks like planting and harvesting, improving efficiency. Predictive analytics helps farmers make informed decisions on irrigation and pest control. AI algorithms can detect diseases in plants or animals through image analysis, enabling early action and reduced pesticide use. Overall, AI in agriculture increases productivity, optimizes resource allocation, and reduces environmental impact.

Apart from this, there are numerous benefits of AI in agriculture. Firstly, AI can help farmers reduce production costs by optimizing resource allocation and minimizing waste. By accurately predicting crop yield and quality, farmers can make better decisions about when to harvest and sell their produce, maximizing profits. Secondly, AI can contribute to sustainable farming practices. By efficiently monitoring and managing water usage, fertilizer application, and pesticide use, AI helps minimize environmental impact and reduce chemical usage, leading to more sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural practices.

Thirdly, AI can enhance food safety and security by quickly detecting and addressing disease outbreaks or pests. This allows farmers to take timely preventive measures, reducing crop losses and ensuring the availability of safe and healthy food for consumers.

ChatGPT and Precision Agriculture

ChatGPT is one of the most powerful tools in precision agriculture and can help farmers in a variety of ways.  Let’s take a look at some of the specific use cases where ChatGPT can assist farmers in their agricultural practices:

Monitoring Livestock Health

Livestock health is vital for farmers, and early detection of any health issues is crucial. ChatGPT can assist farmers by analysing symptoms and providing initial assessments of the health conditions of their animals. This early detection can help prevent disease transmission and improve the overall health of the livestock.

Market Analysis and Pricing

Having the right market insights is a big deal for farmers. It’s like having a compass in a vast field. ChatGPT can step in to gather and analyse market data, sort out trends, and give advice on what crops to grow, how to price them, and how to market them smartly. It’s like having a farming buddy who’s really good with numbers and knows the market like the back of their hand. They’ll look at things like past prices, how much stuff people want, and how markets go up and down. All this info helps farmers make savvy choices.

Benefits of AI in Agriculture

Increased efficiency: AI analyses data quickly, optimizing agricultural practices for higher yields, cost savings, and reduced resource wastage.

Precision farming: AI enables precision agriculture by applying resources like water, fertilizers, and pesticides, minimizing environmental impact and improving overall productivity.

Early detection and intervention: AI can detect anomalies, diseases, or crop stress, before they’re visible, allowing prompt action to prevent crop losses and minimize chemical use.  While AI presents several benefits in precision agriculture, it is important to address these challenges to ensure the effective and responsible use of AI technologies in the agricultural sector.

Challenges of AI in Agriculture

Data Quality and Availability: Accessing high-quality data can be challenging in some agricultural regions, limiting the effectiveness of AI models. Privacy concerns and data ownership also impact data availability for AI applications.

Integration with Existing Systems: Implementing AI solutions like ChatGPT into existing agricultural systems can be complex due to compatibility issues, cost barriers, and the need for specialized training.

User Trust and Understanding: Building trust in AI systems among farmers is crucial for widespread adoption. Farmers may require education and awareness about AI technologies to understand how it works.

The future of precision agriculture looks bright with advancements in AI and technology. Expect better disease prediction, pest control, and automated tasks like planting. This integration of technology and farming boosts sustainability, productivity, and helps farmers make smarter decisions. Despite challenges, precision agriculture offers solutions to revolutionize crop cultivation, ensuring food security for all.

How Precision Agriculture Will Answer Global Food Security in The Future

Here is an interesting story about a farmer named Jack. He used to farm the traditional way, relying on estimation and experimentation to manage his crops. He wasted a lot of water, fertilizer, and pesticide, and his yields were low and inconsistent. He was struggling to make ends meet and feed his family. Then he discovered precision agriculture. It was like a magic wand that transformed his farm into a high-tech wonderland.

He used drones, sensors, and GPS to monitor his fields and apply the right amount of resources at the right time and place. He used data analysis and weather forecasting to make smart decisions on crop management. He used technology to optimize his efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. He was surprised by the results: his crops grew faster and healthier which eventually resulted in a decrease in environmental impact. He felt like a superhero who could save the world from climate change & hunger.

Well, this is not a fairy tale; this is precision agriculture. It’s not just a buzzword; it’s a game-changer that can help us feed the world in the future without harming the planet. So, here’s how precision agriculture will impact global food security in the future:

1. Efficient Resource Allocation: Picture this – precision agriculture acts as a farming GPS, guiding farmers to manage their resources like water, fertilizers, and pesticides with laser-like precision. This means less waste and more bang for the buck.
2. Yield Maximization: Thanks to nifty tech toys like sensors, drones, and GPS, farmers get a super clear view of what’s happening in their fields. This intel lets them fine-tune stuff like watering, fertilizing, and pest-busting to score bigger harvests.
3. Reduced Environmental Impact: Precision agriculture isn’t just about boosting yields; it’s also a planet-friendly pal. By using resources like fertilizers, pesticides, and water only where and when they’re needed, we’re reducing nasty stuff like water pollution and soil wear and tear.
4. Data-Driven Decision Making: Think of precision agriculture as a farmer’s data butler. It collects info from sensors, satellites, and weather forecasts, serving up tasty insights. Armed with this knowledge, farmers can make savvy decisions about how to run the show, making farming even more effective.
5. Remote Monitoring and Management: Imagine being able to keep an eye on your farm even when you’re miles away. Precision agriculture lets farmers do just that. With sensors, drones, and cameras, they can spot pests, diseases, or irrigation hiccups in real time, swooping in to save the day.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the farming industry is experiencing a transformation through the use of AI and data-driven insights, in precision agriculture. By leveraging technologies farmers are able to optimize their operations increase productivity and minimize their impact.

AI-powered solutions enable real-time monitoring and analysis of crop health, soil conditions and weather patterns facilitating timely decision making. The integration of data-driven insights into farming practices helps maximize the use of resources like water, fertilizers and pesticides. This leads to sustainability and efficiency.

Additionally, precision agriculture promotes the transition, towards resilient methods of food production that benefit farmers, consumers and the environment as a whole.

The post Precision Agriculture: Transforming Farming with AI and Data-Driven Insights appeared first on IPNN.

Director, Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Impact Action Platform, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Direct link: https://www.weforum.org/stories/2024/11/cop29-agriculture-loss-damage-fund//

• COP29 must offer targeted finance to countries whose agricultural sector has been hardest hit by the climate crisis.
• The Loss and Damage Fund can help support smallholder farmers in low- and middle-income countries.
• In order to have the greatest impact on the agricultural sector, climate finance must be guided by data.

After the last UN climate talks in Dubai were dubbed the “Food COP”, it makes sense that COP29 focuses on finance. The food and agriculture sector is frequently the hardest hit by the worsening impacts of climate change, with droughts, floods and heatwaves undermining food production and food security, causing devastating economic losses.

This year’s talks in Baku, Azerbaijan, therefore present a pivotal opportunity to build on the historic Loss and Damage Fund agreed in 2023 to compensate the countries that are simultaneously most dependent on agriculture and exposed to climate risks not of their own making.

An estimated $3.8 trillion worth of crops and livestock have been lost due to disaster events in the past 30 years, equivalent to $123 billion per year. These losses have not been fairly distributed: The highest relative losses have been inflicted on lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs), ranging between 10 and 15% of their total agricultural GDP.

Cycle of devastation

Even more than impacting economies, crop and livestock losses from disasters have cascading impacts on food security, health, water and environment, especially in vulnerable rural communities. From 2008 to 2018, agricultural losses to disasters in LMICs averaged 6.9 trillion kilocalories per year, equivalent to 7 million adults’ caloric intake. In Latin America and the Caribbean, this was a loss of 975 calories per day, or 40% of an adult’s recommended daily allowance, followed by Africa (559 / 23%) and Asia (283 / 12%).

Disaster events are also becoming worse and more commonplace, increasing fivefold in the past 50 years. With populations in some of the poorest and most food-insecure nations projected to grow the most in the time to 2050, decisive action must be taken now. Otherwise, we risk communities and entire nations becoming permanently trapped in the cycle of climate destruction and recovery, entirely dependent on international food aid.

Crop yields are suffering and will continue to plummet without support for farmers struggling to cope with the impacts of climate change. Already, projections show rice yields in Asia could drop by as much as 50% by the end of the century, while its population is forecast to remain largely the same.

The Loss and Damage Fund, however, has the potential to correct the present imbalance, ensuring food security and keeping farmers in business. In LMICs – where agriculture makes up an average of 25% of national GDP and directly employs as much as 35% of the population – smallholder farmers should be the ultimate recipients of support. With more financial support, smallholder farmers can access improved seeds, training and climate-resilient technologies to increase productivity and better withstand intensifying droughts, floods, cyclones and other climate-related shocks.

This, in turn, strengthens food security, reduces poverty and fosters economic growth. Agriculture can serve as the backbone of more climate-resilient rural economies and catalyze growth in adjacent sectors, such as transportation, processing and retail, thereby creating broader economic stability and development.

Quantifying agriculture

To realize these gains, climate finance must be guided by evidence and data. The science already exists: Climate attribution research can successfully identify the extent to which human-induced climate change influences specific extreme weather events and patterns. By pinpointing climate change as a driver of specific floods, droughts, heatwaves and other weather events impacting agriculture, cutting-edge research can quantify the impacts of climate change on agriculture.

Attribution science can not only inform compensation claims and financial aid in vulnerable nations and regions, but also enhance our understanding of long-term damage in agricultural systems and inform targeted adaptation strategies. United Nations studies have already demonstrated yield losses of 2-10% in wheat yields in Morocco and Kazakhstan, and maize in South Africa.

But this research has its limits. There are important data gaps for many rural agricultural communities, where robust climate monitoring and historical records are lacking at present. This scarcity of localized, high-quality data hinders the precision of attribution studies in some of the regions worst affected by climate change, limiting researchers’ ability to accurately assess and quantify loss and damage in these areas.

However, tools exist to help plug data gaps by providing cutting-edge methodologies, improved metrics and tailored climate information systems. For example, CGIAR collaborates with national agricultural research systems and local partners around the world to collect and analyze climate data in underserved regions. Upscaling initiatives such as these to improve monitoring systems and curate specialized tools for real-time loss and damage tracking will be integral to pinpointing where finance will deliver the most significant rehabilitative impact.

As global leaders convene at COP29 and discuss where resources from the Loss and Damage Fund are to be prioritized, farmers must be at the forefront. By channeling resources strategically, we can ensure an equitable transition to sustainable food systems, reducing emissions and building resilience against future climate shocks simultaneously. Leaders must recognize that climate justice means prioritizing those who bear the greatest burden while contributing the least to global emissions, and ensuring no one is left behind.

The post Farmers must be front of the line for climate compensation after COP29. Here’s why appeared first on IPNN.

Allison Lynch, Staff Writer

2 TYPES OF LIVESTOCK: While the cattle may seem like the only livestock in this field, there is another type of livestock just below the soil surface. Viewing soil microbes as “livestock” will help you care for the soil and better provide for your crop. One measure taken here to feed the soil microbes is maintaining a growing crop all year. Allison Lynch

Soil health has a direct impact on plant health, and caring for your soil first means the benefits of healthy soil can provide immediate effects to your crop. As Neal Kinsey, owner of Kinsey Agricultural Services, puts it, fertility required for the soil and plants are one and the same.

“The soil is the plant’s stomach,” he says. “And when we mess up the soil, we’re messing up digestion for the plant.”

Kinsey recommends viewing the organisms in your soil as “livestock” to help you focus on properly caring for and maintaining them. For example, he shares that an accurate depiction for very poor soil life in need of help could be one cow per acre when it comes to the inputs needed to care for the soil microbes. This simply makes it easier for you to view the soil as a living medium when making amendments and improving soil health.

Feed ‘the cow’

Caring for the “cows” in your soil may seem daunting, but there are some tips for success when it comes to improving soil health. Kinsey and RJ Rant, owner of Terraform Ag and Nutrilink Biosystems, share how you can feed your soils to in turn feed your plants:

Keep a growing crop. Including a cover crop in the off-season can improve soil microbe presence and microbe community structure. You are not able to grow the soil without growing a crop.

“A soil not growing anything is a soil dying,” Rant says. He adds that implementing crop rotation and cover crops will help you continue to improve soil health.

Move past sufficiency. Simply supplying enough nutrients to reach sufficiency levels will not help you feed and improve your soils, Rant shares. Getting past the “just enough” level of fertility will continue to develop soils rather than maintaining the current growing crop.

“If you go past sufficiency and have abundance, you can better drive photosynthesis,” Rant adds.

Correct all your soils. Don’t only focus on your problem soils when improving soil health. Kinsey says when you do that, another field can quickly become the problem. Rather, spend time learning more about how you can improve all your fields and soils, even if they do not present any issues in the short term.

“To maintain top yields, even the best soils at times need corrections,” Kinsey says.

Study nature. It can be easy to head online and look up how to improve your soil problems, but ultimately, you will learn more by doing. Test different practices and experiment with soil amendments until you see what pays off in your crops.

“How do you know what works?” Kinsey asks. “You do it yourself. You find out for yourself. And you don’t find out everything at once.” He adds that you should test things for at least three years before you judge whether it works or not.

Minimize disturbances. All disturbances will affect soil function, according to Rant. He shares that tillage events can be viewed as concussions. Over time, those events can build up and cause a chronic issue with soil fertility and, ultimately, plant performance.

“If you’re making a disturbance, have a good reason,” Rant adds.

Viewing soil as an ecosystem or thinking of soil microbes as your livestock will help you shift your focus to improving soil health and structure to care for your crops.

“It’s not just dirt, which is your sand, silt and clay,” Rant says. “It’s humus and living organisms, and it’s how those things are interacting constantly.”

The post Feed the Soil to Feed Your Plants appeared first on IPNN.

The post How Much to Grow? appeared first on IPNN.

I focus on smallholder agriculture because most of the food in the region is generated by farms that are only a few acres or hectares in size. And, while African economies are diversifying, most Africans still depend on crops and livestock production for income.

Across the region there is a strong link between fighting hunger, poverty and improving productivity and incomes on smallholder farms. But we must be careful to avoid pursuing solutions that damage the broader ecosystem.

In my research, I have explored how farmer innovations and local knowledge can contribute to maintaining crop varieties, livestock, pollinators, soil micro-organisms and other variables essential for a sustainable agriculture system. What scientists call agriculture biodiversity or agrobiodiversity.

My work puts me firmly on the side of people who today advocate for an approach to food production that’s called “agroecology” or “environmental conservation.” This means a focus on farming methods that protect natural resources and vulnerable ecosystems while respecting local knowledge and customs.

At the same time, however, in certain contexts I do support approaches that are viewed as “wrong” to many contemporary advocates of agroecology. These include the use of certified, commercial seeds for improved crop varieties, fertilisers, and genetically modified crops.

Opposition by agroecologists is rooted in a mix of concerns. With certified seeds, there is wariness about the cost to farmers and the impact on the common practice of saving seeds from one season to the next. For fertilisers, the focus is on run-off caused by their excessive use in places like North America and Europe. Opposition to genetically modified crops involves unease with using genes from unrelated species to improve crops. In addition to this is the potentially higher price of modified varieties.

While this may seem contradictory to some, I know that agroecology and advanced farming practices can co-exist in Africa. Indeed, to ensure African farmers and food markets can thrive while protecting local ecosystems – especially as climate change presents a host of new food-related challenges —- they must co-exist.

In my view, supporters of agroecology who strongly oppose new inventions are sincere in their beliefs that they are advocating for the interests of Africa’s farmers and the preservation of vulnerable ecosystems. Unfortunately, if successful, such hardline positions will narrow the options available in ways that will be harmful to both.

Weighing up the options

The three issues that appear to be most contentious for certain advocates of agroecology: fertilisers, commercially produce improved seeds and genetically modified crops.

Let’s start with synthetic fertilisers. The main concerns with fertilisers are related to their misguided and excessive application. In some places, this has contributed to the degradation of freshwater and saltwater ecosystems. However, rather than an absolute ban on using them, I prefer strategies that consider their safe and, modest use.

There are many situations on African farms today where modest amounts of synthetic fertilisers – applied in combination with other sustainable soil management strategies, such as crop rotation and intercropping – will do more to restore degraded landscapes than cow or sheep manure alone.

For the farmers I’ve worked with, the manure from their livestock may be enough to fertilise the small garden outside their kitchen, but it won’t be nearly enough to fertilise entire farms. Particularly if they hope to grow enough food to sell.

Seed debates

Some agroecology advocates also firmly oppose commercial seeds in favour of those saved by farmers from season to season. There are concerns about the cost of new seeds to farmers and also that crop diversity will narrow as varieties, that farmers have planted for generations, will be lost.

Again, I look for evidence of outcomes, as do most farmers I encounter. Overall, the farmers I’ve worked with in Africa are radically practical and carefully evaluate their options. They will purchase a commercial seed if they see clear evidence that it is worth the investment. For instance, that it provides superior yields, or other qualities, while retaining the flavour and texture they and their customers prefer. If not, they will use seeds saved from previous years.

Expanding their options with commercial seeds can empower farmers. It helps them make choices that can help to improve both household income and sustainably boost production to meet consumer demands. These outcomes align with agroecological principles.

Genetically modified crops

When it comes to genetically modified crops, I focus on the traits they contain and the agroecological conditions where they are to be used. Again, context is critical. There are clearly contexts where genetically modified seeds —- once thoroughly tested to prove they are safe —- can be compatible with agroecology.

For example, varieties of maize, cotton and cowpea are now being developed for, and increasingly cultivated by, African farmers. The genetically modified traits are used to help address pests and other stresses, including drought. These crops undergo extensive trials and national regulatory reviews to assess their safety and consider their release to farmers for use.

New varieties of genetically modified maize and cowpea that can fight off destructive crop pests are especially attractive. They contain traits acquired from a safe, naturally occurring soil bacteria called Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt. It has also been used for decades as an organic crop protection spray. Incorporating Bt traits directly into the crop itself reduces the need to treat fields with expensive and, in some instances, potentially toxic pesticides that may result in huge problems for people and the environment from inappropriate use. In this context, the genetically modified seeds —- if affordable – could be the optimal choice from an agroecological perspective.

Bt cowpea was recently approved in Nigeria and Bt maize is being evaluated as an option for fighting destruction caused by the recent arrival of fall armyworm pests on the continent. Bt cotton is already grown in several countries in Africa where it offers higher yields and reduces the need for pesticides.

However, farmers in Burkina Faso are no longer growing Bt cotton due to concerns about the quality of the fibres produced by the variety available to them, though not its pest-fighting properties. These quality concerns point to the need to support local breeding efforts, as Nigeria is now doing with its Bt cotton varieties, as opposed to rejecting the technology itself.

No perfect solution

The difficult issues around Bt cotton production in Burkina Faso are evidence that there are no perfect solutions.

But we know the results of a lack of choices – where African farmers plant only the seeds from varieties they have been cultivating for decades and have limited options for maintain soil health and dealing with crop pests. It has contributed to a situation where crop yields have stagnated, lands are degraded of basic nutrients, consumers’ demands must be met with costly food imports. Those who depend on agriculture suffer high rates of poverty and hunger.

We also know from the experience of farmers in other countries about the pitfalls of an over-reliance on a small range of commercially produced crop varieties and unchecked use of fertilisers and pesticides.

But we will not overcome these challenges by narrowing the options for addressing them. Instead, we should be open to a wider range of practices and innovations.

For me that means embracing the core focus of agroecology – supporting environmentally sustainable food production that benefits local farmers, consumers and ecosystems – while avoiding the wholesale rejection of certain technologies that, in the right context, can be instrumental to achieving this critical goal.

By Ratemo Michieka

The post No perfect solution: Africa’s smallholder farmers must use both traditional and new practices appeared first on IPNN.

December is a month to harvest winter crops and turn them into warming, hearty meals. As well as harvesting the likes of parsnips, kale, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and more, it may be surprising to discover there are also vegetables to plant in December.

But it is too cold, snowy, and frosty for planting vegetables, I hear you say. That is true for outdoor plants, but by sowing vegetables indoors this month you can have harvests throughout the colder months or get early crops of some vegetables later in the season.

If you wonder what to plant in December, we reveal seven vegetables to plant this month along with tips for where and how to sow. I grew and harvested vegetables for restaurants year-round in kitchen gardens in the UK. I used greenhouses to plant over winter, however, many vegetables can be started on a bright windowsill.

Vegetables to plant in December

December may be too cold to sow seeds outdoors, but there is a good selection of vegetable seeds to start indoors to get ahead for next year. For additional heat and light levels this month, a heated propagator with LED lights can help you avoid leggy seedlings and have healthy vegetable seedlings to transplant in spring.

Here are a great selection of vegetables to plant in December:

1. Eggplant

They might be heat-loving plants and a typical summer crop, but eggplants have a long growing season and the benefit of sowing them early means an earlier crop.

As eggplants can take six months to go from sowing seeds to harvest time, the earlier you can start the better. Though this will only be possible in certain situations. For example, if you are growing them as part of your greenhouse planning, or live in a warmer climate, then you will be able to plant eggplants into their final position earlier – this makes a December sowing ideal for the earliest pickings of ripe eggplants.

Eggplant seeds will need lots of warmth to get them going as they like temperatures of 60-70°F for good germination. It would be an eggplant growing mistake to not give them supplemental heat to start them off. Sow them in individual pots or modules and keep the soil warm and moist.

You can see the range of eggplant seeds available at Burpee

2. Onions

Onions can be sown from seeds or sets, and there is an old adage that the best time to sow seeds is on Boxing Day. Starting the onion seeds in mid-winter means they can have a long growing season and are ready to be planted out as soon as the soil starts to warm come spring.

When growing onions from seeds, they should be sown lightly into modules and want temperatures of 50-60°F to germinate. Thin the seedlings that appear and keep the soil moist, before transplanting the onion seedlings into the vegetable garden after a period of hardening off in the spring.

3. Lettuce

Growing lettuce is usually associated with the summer months and salads on warm days. However, the crop can be sown year-round and it is possible to grow lettuce indoors throughout the winter.

You can grow lettuce in pots on a windowsill, in an unheated greenhouse, or a cold frame for a quick harvest of tasty leaves. Loose leaf lettuce types are ideal for growing indoors, while winter hardy salad leaves such as ‘Winter Gem’ or ‘Arctic King’ will grow happily in a cold greenhouse or cold frame during the colder winter months as they thrive at lower temperatures.

Fill containers with quality potting soil, such as this organic potting soil available at Amazon, and sow your lettuce seeds thinly on the surface. Cover with a thin layer of more soil or vermiculite, such as this one from Burpee, and place the container in a bright spot. Keep the soil moist but not waterlogged and the seeds should germinate quickly.

Lettuce Seeds – Fall & Winter Mix

See at True Leaf Market

A mix of lettuce seeds, containing the right varieties to survive the low light and low-temperature conditions of fall and winter and extend the salad season. It includes the likes of Danyelle, Flame, and Red Deer Tongue lettuce.

4. Chili peppers

Chili peppers have a long growing season and need lots of warmth to develop and fully ripen. It may seem early, but December is thought by many growers to be an ideal time to sow the seeds of the hottest types of chili peppers – including the likes of Carolina Reaper and Ghost Peppers – such as these Wicked Ghost F1 chili pepper seeds available at Walmart.

Starting the process of growing chili peppers early gives the fruit lots of time to develop their heat, and giving them the longest time possible to ripen is one surefire way to grow hotter peppers. As some chili varieties take three months or more to go from planting in their final position to the fruits being ready to pick, starting early can help ensure you have time to get a good harvest.

Start the chili seeds in a heated propagator at temperatures above 80˚F and use grow lights to give them the right levels of light they need to develop healthily. Germination can be slow with chilies and it may take a few weeks for the seedlings to show. Pot the seedlings up once they form their first few true leaves and continue to grow them somewhere warm.

5. Fava beans

Fava beans are a very cold hardy crop that can be planted in fall, winter, or spring, with earlier sowings providing earlier harvests in spring. If you have not yet sown the crop, there is an opportunity to plant fava beans in December.

Where you sow will depend on your climate and soil type. If you want to grow fava beans and live in an area with milder winters, you can plant the beans outdoors and start them under the protection of cloches or horticultural fleece. Those in colder climates, or who have heavy soil that sits very wet over winter, are best to start the fava beans in pots indoors to plant outside in spring.

Hardy types of fava beans are the most suitable for winter sowings, including the ‘Aquadulce’ variety that can withstand cold and germinate at temperatures as low as 42-50˚F. If you plant the seeds in December you should expect to harvest fava beans from May.

6. Mustards

Mustard greens may be an unknown crop for many, but they are fast-growing vegetables that can provide peppery leaves for salads or stir-fries throughout the winter and spring.

The cool-season vegetables can be grown on a windowsill or in a warm greenhouse in winter. Mustards come in various leaf colors and shapes and can be harvested as a cut-and-come-again crop.

Mustard greens can take 4-6 weeks from sowing to being ready to harvest. The leaves can be harvested as baby greens or full-size – but they get bitter if left to develop too long. Simply remove the larger leaves with a clean knife or scissors and allow the younger ones to develop. Alternatively, mustards make a good microgreen to grow and harvest as seedlings for a spicy garnish.

Sow mustard seeds thinly around a half-inch deep into pots or trays filled with a potting mix and they will germinate quickly at temperatures around 55-65°F. Pot up seedlings and plant them three inches apart into containers. Keep the plants consistently moist and start to harvest once the leaves reach a usable size, but do not remove more than a third of the plant at once.

Discover a range of mustard seeds to sow at Burpee.

7. Mint

OK, mint is not technically a vegetable – but it is a great plant to sow this month.

Mint can be sown throughout the year and a sowing of this herb in December can mean you have a crop of mint indoors to harvest throughout spring. There are several herbs that can be sown indoors in winter, not only can you have indoor herbs to harvest but the plants can then be transplanted out into the garden come late spring. As well as growing mint, you could sow dill, chives, or basil in a windowsill propagator in December.

You can get a wide variety of mint seeds, coming in many different flavors, and all are simple to sow. Scatter the seeds thinly on the top of moist compost and do not cover them. They want a good level of light and temperatures of around 60°F – artificial grow lights can be used to supplement the natural light.

The seedlings should grow quickly and you can start to harvest mint as soon as the leaves reach a usable size. Picking the herb will ensure the plant keeps producing more of the most flavorful young shoots. The plants can be potted up into containers to grow outside once the risk of frosts has passed, or can be planted into a herb garden – but make sure to contain mint as the plant can spread quickly.

See the range of mint plants and seeds available at Burpee

December may be considered a quiet time for gardening, but there are still jobs to add to any winter gardening checklist. As well as vegetables to plant in December, there are also flowers to sow in December and plants to prune in December. Heading out with tools to trim this month – in the right conditions – will help those shrubs and trees that need pruning to stay healthy and productive for next year.

By Drew Swainston in Advice

The post 7 vegetables to plant in December – you don’t even need a greenhouse to sow these crops over winter appeared first on IPNN.

The nexus between clean cooking, carbon emissions, and human health is undeniable. Indoor air pollution caused by traditional cooking kills approximately half a million people annually in Africa, primarily women and children, according to an IEA report.

The health implications of traditional cooking are staggering.

Women and children, who bear the brunt of cooking responsibilities, are exposed to harmful smoke, leading to respiratory diseases, eye infections, and other health complications. Indoor air pollution from cooking is a leading cause of premature death in many African countries.

This health crisis, combined with the environmental impact, makes a compelling case for a shift to cleaner cooking solutions.

Change is often difficult. People have cooked in these ways for generations, therefore it has perhaps been overlooked as a major global health issue.

In Paris earlier this year, national presidents and CEOs of major energy companies attended an encouraging International Energy Agency (IEA) summit. The summit addressed traditional cooking, the health issues, potential solutions and the role of carbon finance. There was a commitment of more than $2.2 billion towards enabling cleaner cooking in Africa, from entities such as the African Development Bank, Norway and the European Commissions, as well as energy majors such as Total and Shell.

By investing in the infrastructure to provide clean cooking solutions such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), bioethanol and electricity, Africa can dramatically improve the health and well-being of its citizens. These solutions not only reduce indoor air pollution but also contribute to climate change mitigation.

However, the challenge is that all these solutions have a cost attached which often makes it unaffordable for households to switch to a cleaner cooking solution.

Collaboration between governments, international organisations, and private sector companies can help mobilize the necessary resources and expertise to fund these solutions. In particular, they can create carbon credits that can generate a revenue stream which can be used to subsidize the sale of these cookstoves. This enables entrepreneurs to develop products and the infrastructure required to deliver clean cooking solutions to households.

There is an opportunity for Africa to transition to cleaner cooking fuels while generating substantial revenue through carbon credit sales to developed countries or companies seeking to offset their carbon footprint. The transition to clean cooking can be a win-win situation.

The revenue generated from carbon credit sales can enable companies to expand their operations further, and governments may receive a share of proceeds which can be invested in improving healthcare infrastructure and supporting sustainable development initiatives. This creates a virtuous cycle where improved health, environmental benefits, and economic growth reinforce each other.

As an example, this year RMB provided funding to KOKO, a climate tech company leading this transition, replacing demand for charcoal through supplying over 1.3 million homes with a bioethanol clean cooking solution. The resultant carbon revenues are shared with households as a non-government energy subsidy, enabling even the poorest households to switch.

To capitalise on the carbon credits opportunity, some African countries are enabling carbon credits developments and introducing clear governance. Additionally, governments can create supportive policies and incentives to encourage investment in clean cooking infrastructure. Investing in training and capacity building will empower local communities to participate in the carbon market and benefit from the proceeds.

Africa’s transition to clean cooking is not merely an environmental or health imperative; it is also an economic opportunity.

By embracing clean cooking solutions and leveraging the carbon market, Africa can improve the lives of hundreds of millions of people, contribute to global climate action, and build a more sustainable future.

The potential of Africa to lead the global clean cooking revolution is immense. With the right policies, investments, and partnerships, the continent can turn a significant challenge into a catalyst for progress and prosperity.

By Toby Campbell-Colquhoun, Head: Carbon Markets at RMB

The post The role of carbon credits in Africa’s transition to clean cooking appeared first on IPNN.

WHY IS COMPOSTING A GOOD IDEA?

→ You can greatly reduce the waste in your home by recycling it into compost.

→ The compost you produce will improve your soil and save you money on buying fertilisers and soil amendments.

→ You will save money on your water bill as composting your garden beds increases water retention in soil.

→ Promote healthy fruit and flower production.

→ Prevent plant diseases.

→ Help the greater environment by reducing methane production in landfills.

→ Maintain a healthy ecosystem in your garden.

→ Promote beneficial microorganisms in your soil.

→ Prevent plant diseases.

→ Keep the soil food web system in your garden healthy.

COMPOSTING BASICS

There are certain elements that are generally required to make compost:

→ Air: Healthy bacteria that break down organic matter needs air to flourish; a lack of ventilation will lead to bad odours and attract vermin.

→ Water: Beneficial organisms that live in compost heaps need water to live and move around the pile.

→ Vegetable matter: The key ingredient for nutrient-rich compost or soil conditioner.

→ Brown biodegradables: Carbon-rich materials, paper, cardboard, woodchips, newspaper, wood branches and straw are essential for ventilation and keeping your compost heap moist.

→ Green biodegradables: Nitrogen-rich materials, grass clippings, leaf litter and dead plant material are essential to create the right temperature and to kill seeds and diseases.

→ Bacteria (EMOs): Decomposes organic matter.

→ Worms: Digest decomposed organic matter and make worm castings high in nutrients for plants to absorb.

→ Soldier flies: Devour food waste faster than worms and bacteria (not essential).

→ Other beneficial bugs: Cockroaches, white worms, millipedes, snails, slugs, mites and many more all help break down organic matter.

Keep a watchful eye on your compost pile to spot bad signs early and take the necessary steps to salvage it:

→ Material is not decomposing: The microorganisms are not thriving. Make sure that your ratio of green and brown biodegradables are balanced and that there is sufficient moisture.

→ Bad smells: This occurs when the pile does not have enough oxygen or is too acidic. Turn your pile and add brown biodegradables. If your pile has a lot of citrus peels, counteract it with ash or lime to restore the PH.

→ Pile is oozing liquid: The pile is too wet due to overwatering or adding too much vegetable matter. You can add brown biodegradables.

→ Dry leaves are not breaking down: Your pile is too dry. Adding vegetable matter will help.

→ Lack of insects: The ratio of your ingredients is off. Investigate what is lacking in green, brown and vegetable matter and moisture.

WHAT CAN BE COMPOSTED?

Brown biodegradables

→ Dry leaves

→ Plant stalks and twigs

→ Shredded paper and brown bags

→ Cardboard

→ Untreated wood

Green biodegradables

→ Food and vegetable scraps

→ Grass cuttings and garden waste

→ Coffee grounds and tea bags

→ Eggshells (crushed)

WHAT TO AVOID

Brown biodegradables

→ Disease- and pest-infested plants

→ Plants that have been treated with pesticides and herbicides

→ Treated or painted wood

→ Plastic bags, containers and labels

→ Glossy paper

Green biodegradables

→ Meat, fish and bones

→ Cheese and dairy products

→ Fats, oils and greases

→ Aggressive weeds with seeds

→ Cat and dog faeces

→ Plants that naturally repel insects: garlic, mint, lavender, citronella and mint

COMPOSTING METHODS

There are three main composting methods: aerobic (with air), anaerobic (without air) and vermicomposting (with earthworms).

1. Aerobic composting: This method entails speeding up decomposition with oxygen by turning or windrows.

Windrow is a method used on a large scale, forming long rows of organic matter and turning it mechanically or manually. Due to the labour or machinery required to turn the composting piles aerobic composting can be used on large scale, community gardens, large estates and restaurant waste.

Aerated static pile composting layers organic matter and bulking agents like cardboard and paper to allow for ventilation. Ventilation pipes can be placed to extract or blow air into the pile, depending on the pile temperature. This method is suitable for large domestic gardens and schools.

2. Anaerobic composting: Organic matter decomposes in an airtight container with the help of microorganisms. This takes a very long time and a large space is required.

3. Vermicomposting: Red earthworms are kept in a bin to break down food scraps to create castings and worm tea. The bins can vary in size depending on the amount of organic waste produced by the household or facility. This method is ideal for apartments, small offices and homes. It can also be scaled up to suit any size facility.

Home composting methods

→ Open-air composting: A pile of organic garden material in your backyard. An enclosure constructed with anything you can find or a plastic container turned into a compost bin. Start the pile with a layer of brown bulking agent like straw, paper, cardboard and woodchips. Layer your heap with garden litter or food scraps and bulking agents. Introduce a nitrogen-rich source like manure or grass clippings. Keep the pile moist.

→ Direct composting: Digging a trench in the ground and directly putting organic kitchen waste in and covering it with soil. This takes longer to decompose; you will need garden space for this. However, this method can attract unwanted animals into the garden.

→ Tumbler composting: A large bin that can be sealed attached to a structure allowing you to rotate it with your hand. You can purchase a tumbler bin in various sizes. This is an easy and effective way to speed up decomposition by turning your compost regularly and the container keeps the temperature high.

→ Worm farm composting:  There are various products to purchase, or you could make your own. All you need is a plastic container with a lid layered with brown biodegradables and food scraps. The brown biodegradables need to be kept moist (like a wrung-out sponge) but not wet to prevent rot and disease. Do not use earthworms from your garden – you can purchase earthworms at garden centres or ask a friend with a worm farm to get you started. A great by-product from this method is ‘worm tea’ – the liquid is regularly drained from the container and can be directly poured into pot plants. The worm castings are used as a soil conditioner in the garden or pots.

→ EMO composting: This is an anaerobic method. Food scraps and organic waste are kept in a sealed bin. A mix of microbes is added and the liquids that are produced are drained off until organic waste is fermented and ready to be used as compost. This method is odourless. Bokashi bins are used for indoor composting and is ideal for apartments.

→ Combination composting: A combination of open-air, direct, vermi-composting and EMO composting. This method is typically used by people who are familiar with the decomposition process and combines practices as they see fit.

Written by Charlotta Carolissen and published in Food&Home Autumn 2023.

The post Your home composting guide appeared first on IPNN.