Worldwide, farmers are being challenged with a variety of issues, including growing populations, a changing climate and soil degradation, among many others. To combat these challenges, researchers are looking for solutions and have begun to focus their research on the viability of sustainable agriculture practices, like cover crops.

“One of the main ways to improve the sustainability of agriculture is to utilize cover crops,” said Deepak Joshi, a recent Ph.D. graduate from South Dakota State University’s Department of Agronomy, Horticulture and Plant Science.

A cover crop is a plant that is used primarily to slow erosion and improve soil health. Cover crops are planted in the short time period following a harvest and are “killed off” prior to the planting of the next cash crop.

“It is assumed that cover crops will improve soil health and soil carbon,” Joshi added.

Joshi’s research provided an overview of conservation agriculture technology as strategies to minimize soil degradation, climate change challenges, and food insecurity issues in developing countries. It also investigated the impact of cover crops on soil organic carbon and greenhouse gas emissions in a corn cropping system through a meta-analysis of previous cover crop studies as well as through field experiment. The paper is published in the Agronomy Journal.

Cover crops

Experimental research on cover crops is widespread with more than 61 peer-reviewed cover crop studies having been completed and digitally available through May 2022. The challenge—as Joshi points out—is that the studies do not always provide a clear answer on the benefits of cover crops.

“There are numerous studies conducted about cover crops, but it is unclear whether they increase or decrease soil carbon,” Joshi said. “If you read through the published articles, some report an increase and others a decrease. The information provided was unclear.”

For his own research, Joshi combined all known cover crop studies (61) on corn cropping systems into one meta-analysis. It was found that cover crops increase the soil organic carbon by 7.3%—a significant amount.

Soil organic carbon is the measurable component of soil organic matter and is a key element in determining soil quality. A higher soil organic carbon percentage indicates greater soil health.

“Ultimately, cover crops are taking carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stirring it into the soil,” Joshi said. “That means cover crops can help improve the growing climate problem and also help improve soil health.”

Joshi found that current corn fields with cover crops have a soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration rate of .8 Mg. This means that if all U.S. corn fields used cover crops, 29.12 million Mg SOC could be sequestered annually, which equals 107 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, this is equivalent to the greenhouse gas emissions from nearly 247.5 million barrels of oil or 23.8 million gasoline-powered vehicles driven for one year.

“From the two-year field experiment conducted, we found rye cover crop during growth stage reduced N₂O emission while it increased during decomposition. However, when we combined both growth phases, cover crop and no cover crop treatment had similar emission. This means that cover crops have no effect on GHG emissions, instead it improves soil health by improving soil microorganisms, soil moisture and soil carbon,” Joshi said.

“It will also ultimately increase the crop yield for the next harvest season as well,” Joshi added.

The meta-analysis showed that adopting cover crops increased corn yield by 23%.

While cover crops have long had low adoption rates for farmers in the Upper Midwest, more are gaining a clear understanding of the proven benefits, and adoption rates have begun to increase in recent years.

More information: Deepak R. Joshi et al, A global meta‐analysis of cover crop response on soil carbon storage within a corn production system, Agronomy Journal (2023). DOI: 10.1002/agj2.21340

Journal information: Agronomy Journal 

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December is a month to harvest winter crops and turn them into warming, hearty meals. As well as harvesting the likes of parsnips, kale, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, and more, it may be surprising to discover there are also vegetables to plant in December.

But it is too cold, snowy, and frosty for planting vegetables, I hear you say. That is true for outdoor plants, but by sowing vegetables indoors this month you can have harvests throughout the colder months or get early crops of some vegetables later in the season.

If you wonder what to plant in December, we reveal seven vegetables to plant this month along with tips for where and how to sow. I grew and harvested vegetables for restaurants year-round in kitchen gardens in the UK. I used greenhouses to plant over winter, however, many vegetables can be started on a bright windowsill.

Vegetables to plant in December

December may be too cold to sow seeds outdoors, but there is a good selection of vegetable seeds to start indoors to get ahead for next year. For additional heat and light levels this month, a heated propagator with LED lights can help you avoid leggy seedlings and have healthy vegetable seedlings to transplant in spring.

Here are a great selection of vegetables to plant in December:

1. Eggplant

They might be heat-loving plants and a typical summer crop, but eggplants have a long growing season and the benefit of sowing them early means an earlier crop.

As eggplants can take six months to go from sowing seeds to harvest time, the earlier you can start the better. Though this will only be possible in certain situations. For example, if you are growing them as part of your greenhouse planning, or live in a warmer climate, then you will be able to plant eggplants into their final position earlier – this makes a December sowing ideal for the earliest pickings of ripe eggplants.

Eggplant seeds will need lots of warmth to get them going as they like temperatures of 60-70°F for good germination. It would be an eggplant growing mistake to not give them supplemental heat to start them off. Sow them in individual pots or modules and keep the soil warm and moist.

You can see the range of eggplant seeds available at Burpee

2. Onions

Onions can be sown from seeds or sets, and there is an old adage that the best time to sow seeds is on Boxing Day. Starting the onion seeds in mid-winter means they can have a long growing season and are ready to be planted out as soon as the soil starts to warm come spring.

When growing onions from seeds, they should be sown lightly into modules and want temperatures of 50-60°F to germinate. Thin the seedlings that appear and keep the soil moist, before transplanting the onion seedlings into the vegetable garden after a period of hardening off in the spring.

3. Lettuce

Growing lettuce is usually associated with the summer months and salads on warm days. However, the crop can be sown year-round and it is possible to grow lettuce indoors throughout the winter.

You can grow lettuce in pots on a windowsill, in an unheated greenhouse, or a cold frame for a quick harvest of tasty leaves. Loose leaf lettuce types are ideal for growing indoors, while winter hardy salad leaves such as ‘Winter Gem’ or ‘Arctic King’ will grow happily in a cold greenhouse or cold frame during the colder winter months as they thrive at lower temperatures.

Fill containers with quality potting soil, such as this organic potting soil available at Amazon, and sow your lettuce seeds thinly on the surface. Cover with a thin layer of more soil or vermiculite, such as this one from Burpee, and place the container in a bright spot. Keep the soil moist but not waterlogged and the seeds should germinate quickly.

Lettuce Seeds – Fall & Winter Mix

See at True Leaf Market

A mix of lettuce seeds, containing the right varieties to survive the low light and low-temperature conditions of fall and winter and extend the salad season. It includes the likes of Danyelle, Flame, and Red Deer Tongue lettuce.

4. Chili peppers

Chili peppers have a long growing season and need lots of warmth to develop and fully ripen. It may seem early, but December is thought by many growers to be an ideal time to sow the seeds of the hottest types of chili peppers – including the likes of Carolina Reaper and Ghost Peppers – such as these Wicked Ghost F1 chili pepper seeds available at Walmart.

Starting the process of growing chili peppers early gives the fruit lots of time to develop their heat, and giving them the longest time possible to ripen is one surefire way to grow hotter peppers. As some chili varieties take three months or more to go from planting in their final position to the fruits being ready to pick, starting early can help ensure you have time to get a good harvest.

Start the chili seeds in a heated propagator at temperatures above 80˚F and use grow lights to give them the right levels of light they need to develop healthily. Germination can be slow with chilies and it may take a few weeks for the seedlings to show. Pot the seedlings up once they form their first few true leaves and continue to grow them somewhere warm.

5. Fava beans

Fava beans are a very cold hardy crop that can be planted in fall, winter, or spring, with earlier sowings providing earlier harvests in spring. If you have not yet sown the crop, there is an opportunity to plant fava beans in December.

Where you sow will depend on your climate and soil type. If you want to grow fava beans and live in an area with milder winters, you can plant the beans outdoors and start them under the protection of cloches or horticultural fleece. Those in colder climates, or who have heavy soil that sits very wet over winter, are best to start the fava beans in pots indoors to plant outside in spring.

Hardy types of fava beans are the most suitable for winter sowings, including the ‘Aquadulce’ variety that can withstand cold and germinate at temperatures as low as 42-50˚F. If you plant the seeds in December you should expect to harvest fava beans from May.

6. Mustards

Mustard greens may be an unknown crop for many, but they are fast-growing vegetables that can provide peppery leaves for salads or stir-fries throughout the winter and spring.

The cool-season vegetables can be grown on a windowsill or in a warm greenhouse in winter. Mustards come in various leaf colors and shapes and can be harvested as a cut-and-come-again crop.

Mustard greens can take 4-6 weeks from sowing to being ready to harvest. The leaves can be harvested as baby greens or full-size – but they get bitter if left to develop too long. Simply remove the larger leaves with a clean knife or scissors and allow the younger ones to develop. Alternatively, mustards make a good microgreen to grow and harvest as seedlings for a spicy garnish.

Sow mustard seeds thinly around a half-inch deep into pots or trays filled with a potting mix and they will germinate quickly at temperatures around 55-65°F. Pot up seedlings and plant them three inches apart into containers. Keep the plants consistently moist and start to harvest once the leaves reach a usable size, but do not remove more than a third of the plant at once.

Discover a range of mustard seeds to sow at Burpee.

7. Mint

OK, mint is not technically a vegetable – but it is a great plant to sow this month.

Mint can be sown throughout the year and a sowing of this herb in December can mean you have a crop of mint indoors to harvest throughout spring. There are several herbs that can be sown indoors in winter, not only can you have indoor herbs to harvest but the plants can then be transplanted out into the garden come late spring. As well as growing mint, you could sow dill, chives, or basil in a windowsill propagator in December.

You can get a wide variety of mint seeds, coming in many different flavors, and all are simple to sow. Scatter the seeds thinly on the top of moist compost and do not cover them. They want a good level of light and temperatures of around 60°F – artificial grow lights can be used to supplement the natural light.

The seedlings should grow quickly and you can start to harvest mint as soon as the leaves reach a usable size. Picking the herb will ensure the plant keeps producing more of the most flavorful young shoots. The plants can be potted up into containers to grow outside once the risk of frosts has passed, or can be planted into a herb garden – but make sure to contain mint as the plant can spread quickly.

See the range of mint plants and seeds available at Burpee

December may be considered a quiet time for gardening, but there are still jobs to add to any winter gardening checklist. As well as vegetables to plant in December, there are also flowers to sow in December and plants to prune in December. Heading out with tools to trim this month – in the right conditions – will help those shrubs and trees that need pruning to stay healthy and productive for next year.

By Drew Swainston in Advice

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WHY IS COMPOSTING A GOOD IDEA?

→ You can greatly reduce the waste in your home by recycling it into compost.

→ The compost you produce will improve your soil and save you money on buying fertilisers and soil amendments.

→ You will save money on your water bill as composting your garden beds increases water retention in soil.

→ Promote healthy fruit and flower production.

→ Prevent plant diseases.

→ Help the greater environment by reducing methane production in landfills.

→ Maintain a healthy ecosystem in your garden.

→ Promote beneficial microorganisms in your soil.

→ Prevent plant diseases.

→ Keep the soil food web system in your garden healthy.

COMPOSTING BASICS

There are certain elements that are generally required to make compost:

→ Air: Healthy bacteria that break down organic matter needs air to flourish; a lack of ventilation will lead to bad odours and attract vermin.

→ Water: Beneficial organisms that live in compost heaps need water to live and move around the pile.

→ Vegetable matter: The key ingredient for nutrient-rich compost or soil conditioner.

→ Brown biodegradables: Carbon-rich materials, paper, cardboard, woodchips, newspaper, wood branches and straw are essential for ventilation and keeping your compost heap moist.

→ Green biodegradables: Nitrogen-rich materials, grass clippings, leaf litter and dead plant material are essential to create the right temperature and to kill seeds and diseases.

→ Bacteria (EMOs): Decomposes organic matter.

→ Worms: Digest decomposed organic matter and make worm castings high in nutrients for plants to absorb.

→ Soldier flies: Devour food waste faster than worms and bacteria (not essential).

→ Other beneficial bugs: Cockroaches, white worms, millipedes, snails, slugs, mites and many more all help break down organic matter.

Keep a watchful eye on your compost pile to spot bad signs early and take the necessary steps to salvage it:

→ Material is not decomposing: The microorganisms are not thriving. Make sure that your ratio of green and brown biodegradables are balanced and that there is sufficient moisture.

→ Bad smells: This occurs when the pile does not have enough oxygen or is too acidic. Turn your pile and add brown biodegradables. If your pile has a lot of citrus peels, counteract it with ash or lime to restore the PH.

→ Pile is oozing liquid: The pile is too wet due to overwatering or adding too much vegetable matter. You can add brown biodegradables.

→ Dry leaves are not breaking down: Your pile is too dry. Adding vegetable matter will help.

→ Lack of insects: The ratio of your ingredients is off. Investigate what is lacking in green, brown and vegetable matter and moisture.

WHAT CAN BE COMPOSTED?

Brown biodegradables

→ Dry leaves

→ Plant stalks and twigs

→ Shredded paper and brown bags

→ Cardboard

→ Untreated wood

Green biodegradables

→ Food and vegetable scraps

→ Grass cuttings and garden waste

→ Coffee grounds and tea bags

→ Eggshells (crushed)

WHAT TO AVOID

Brown biodegradables

→ Disease- and pest-infested plants

→ Plants that have been treated with pesticides and herbicides

→ Treated or painted wood

→ Plastic bags, containers and labels

→ Glossy paper

Green biodegradables

→ Meat, fish and bones

→ Cheese and dairy products

→ Fats, oils and greases

→ Aggressive weeds with seeds

→ Cat and dog faeces

→ Plants that naturally repel insects: garlic, mint, lavender, citronella and mint

COMPOSTING METHODS

There are three main composting methods: aerobic (with air), anaerobic (without air) and vermicomposting (with earthworms).

1. Aerobic composting: This method entails speeding up decomposition with oxygen by turning or windrows.

Windrow is a method used on a large scale, forming long rows of organic matter and turning it mechanically or manually. Due to the labour or machinery required to turn the composting piles aerobic composting can be used on large scale, community gardens, large estates and restaurant waste.

Aerated static pile composting layers organic matter and bulking agents like cardboard and paper to allow for ventilation. Ventilation pipes can be placed to extract or blow air into the pile, depending on the pile temperature. This method is suitable for large domestic gardens and schools.

2. Anaerobic composting: Organic matter decomposes in an airtight container with the help of microorganisms. This takes a very long time and a large space is required.

3. Vermicomposting: Red earthworms are kept in a bin to break down food scraps to create castings and worm tea. The bins can vary in size depending on the amount of organic waste produced by the household or facility. This method is ideal for apartments, small offices and homes. It can also be scaled up to suit any size facility.

Home composting methods

→ Open-air composting: A pile of organic garden material in your backyard. An enclosure constructed with anything you can find or a plastic container turned into a compost bin. Start the pile with a layer of brown bulking agent like straw, paper, cardboard and woodchips. Layer your heap with garden litter or food scraps and bulking agents. Introduce a nitrogen-rich source like manure or grass clippings. Keep the pile moist.

→ Direct composting: Digging a trench in the ground and directly putting organic kitchen waste in and covering it with soil. This takes longer to decompose; you will need garden space for this. However, this method can attract unwanted animals into the garden.

→ Tumbler composting: A large bin that can be sealed attached to a structure allowing you to rotate it with your hand. You can purchase a tumbler bin in various sizes. This is an easy and effective way to speed up decomposition by turning your compost regularly and the container keeps the temperature high.

→ Worm farm composting:  There are various products to purchase, or you could make your own. All you need is a plastic container with a lid layered with brown biodegradables and food scraps. The brown biodegradables need to be kept moist (like a wrung-out sponge) but not wet to prevent rot and disease. Do not use earthworms from your garden – you can purchase earthworms at garden centres or ask a friend with a worm farm to get you started. A great by-product from this method is ‘worm tea’ – the liquid is regularly drained from the container and can be directly poured into pot plants. The worm castings are used as a soil conditioner in the garden or pots.

→ EMO composting: This is an anaerobic method. Food scraps and organic waste are kept in a sealed bin. A mix of microbes is added and the liquids that are produced are drained off until organic waste is fermented and ready to be used as compost. This method is odourless. Bokashi bins are used for indoor composting and is ideal for apartments.

→ Combination composting: A combination of open-air, direct, vermi-composting and EMO composting. This method is typically used by people who are familiar with the decomposition process and combines practices as they see fit.

Written by Charlotta Carolissen and published in Food&Home Autumn 2023.

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